ORGANIC AGRICULTURE
ORGANIC AGRICULTURE. Organic agriculture originated as a
response to a growing awareness that the health of the land is linked to the health
and future of the people. It is a holistic and philosophical approach to
agriculture, which has as its goals the protection and conservation of the land
for future generations, the production of high-quality food, the return to many
traditional agricultural methods, and the harmonious balance with a complex
series of ecosystems. Land, water, plants, animals, and people are all seen as
interlinked and interdependent.
Definition
The final rule of the United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA), which implements the Organic Foods Production
Act of 1990, describes organic production as one which will "respond to
site-specific conditions by integrating cultural, biological and mechanical
practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance and
conserve biodiversity." Organic agriculture promotes linkages and
connections between land and water, plants and people. Soil fertility is
enhanced through the use of composted waste to be generated at the farm site
and recycled into it, multiple crops and rotations, a belief in the beneficial
results of encouraging biodiversity through numerous species, and no use of
synthetic fertilizers or pesticides. Further, stringent inspections, record
keeping, and certifications are required to verify and maintain the organic
status of the land and the food produced.
The terms "alternative,"
"sustainable," and "ecological" agriculture are also
sometimes used, in place of organic, although not everyone believes that these
terms are interchangeable. The European Union protects three terms:
"organic," "ecological," and "biological" and
abbreviations like "bio" and "eco" in all European Union
languages. This is to prevent their use in a misleading or false manner. In the United States,
the definition of organic agriculture by the National Organic Standards Board
is "an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances
biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on
the minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore,
maintain, and enhance ecological harmony."
Today, organic agriculture is practiced
in almost every country in the world, and the amount of certified organic land
is growing as well. The total area is more than 42 million acres worldwide. The
bulk of the organic land (45 percent) is in Oceania; Europe has 25
percent; North America, almost 8 percent; and Latin America, 22 percent. The
emphasis in organic agriculture is on sustainability, local resources, and the
stewardship of the environment, as well as expanding its global impact beyond
food supply and into ecological health. Economically, the International Trade Center
estimates the world retail market for organic food and beverages increased from
$10 billion in 1997 to $17.5 billion in 2000. Revenue distribution by 2001 is
estimated to be at 46 percent in Europe and 37 percent in the United States.
History
At the beginning of the twentieth
century, 39 percent of the United States population lived on farms, compared
with less than 2 percent in 1990. Large land holdings were designed as federal
lands to protect the natural environment and provide public access. Food quality,
adequacy of supply, and public health were concerns. Issues with food quality
led to the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. Extensive research was carried out
to make plants disease resistant, and to improve yield. In the 1920s Rudolf
Steiner, an extremely charismatic and complex individual, gave a series of
eight lectures about agriculture that were the foundation of biodynamics, a
concept in which all life forms and the land are in balance and combine with
agriculture to address the health of the land with a spiritual dimension. By
the 1930s hybrid seed corn had became common, and the devastation of the dust
storms destroyed millions of acres of farmland in the Plains states. Two world
wars had decimated farms and farmlands in much of Europe. Food supply for
present and future populations was becoming a global concern. The vitality of
the soil was seen by many as the key to a healthy future population.
Sir Albert Howard of England was one of
the visionary leaders, if not the founder, of the organic agricultural movement
in Europe. Philosophically, he linked the health of the land to the health of
the people. Howard believed that agriculture as mainly practiced, with chemical
fertilizers and a single crop, was out of balance with the environment and that
many traditional agricultural practices should be revived. His major concern
was for the health of the soil, which he felt could be maintained by a
diversity of plant and animal crops, recycling of waste to enrich the soil,
minimal depth in plowing, natural pest control, and smaller labor-intensive
farms, emulating traditional methods.
By the 1940s, chemical fertilizers and
pesticide and insecticide use had increased. However, a USDA report from the
same time warned that insecticides were present in food and advocated the use
of naturally occurring products as insecticides. Some believed that
conservation practices like cover crops, crop rotation, strip planting, and
contouring of the planting were critical to preserve the soil both by keeping
it in place and by maintaining its fertility. At the same time, conventional
farming was stressing yields, mechanization, and modern practices. In 1949,
official guidance was issued from the U.S. government on how to appraise the
toxicity of chemicals in foods.
In America, J. I. Rodale had founded Organic Gardening Magazine and the Soil and Health Foundation (now the Rodale Institute).
Many credit him from the mid-1940s onward with promoting and supporting organic
agriculture in America. He went on to create numerous publications and with his
research and publishing delivered his core message of "healthy soil =
healthy food = healthy people."
In 1959, the cranberry crop in the
United States was recalled due to the presence of a cancer-causing chemical
used to kill weeds. In 1962, Rachel Carson's work Silent Spring had a massive impact:
Many Americans, for the first time, saw the link between the loss of plant and
animal populations and the use of pesticides. By that time organic farming was
well established as an alternative approach. Further environmental activism in
the 1970s made many aware of organic agriculture and organic foods.
Alice Waters opened her restaurant Chez
Panisse in Berkeley in 1971 and has been a promoter and champion of quality
ingredients, supporting growers who farm organically. Her influence in turn
promoted and sustained many other organic growers. The fame and growing impact
of Chez Panisse have affected chefs and the public alike. Numerous chefs today
provide details about ingredients on their menu, and many base their entire
approach to food on organic products.
Likewise, vegetarians have long focused
on the quality of the ingredients in their diet. John and Karen Hess in their
landmark book The Taste of America decried the quality of food in America in the 1970s, stating that
"[t]he health food and organic movements and the counterculture generally,
have made some small but enormously promising steps toward reviving the taste
of our food. . . . They are our hope" (p. 298). Organic agricul ture has
slowly grown, spurred by various scares but hampered by the counterculture
label. Reports and findings in the 1990s with regard to the effect of
pesticides and chemicals in food on humans, particularly children (for example,
the use of alar on apples), drove the increasing demand for organically
produced food, which in turn spurred the growth of organic farms.
Application of Principles
Although many people associate organic
agriculture primarily with fruits and vegetables, organic agricultural practices
are applied effectively to all crops and animals. All crops—grains, citrus, nuts, fruits, herbs, vegetables, oilseeds
like flax and sunflower, beans, cotton, grasses for pastureland—can reinforce a basic organic tenet: grow a variety of crops
in a rotation system. Many people prefer organic agriculture because of its
systemic approach that ties food production to ecology, and connects land,
people, plants, and animals to a common goal, a healthy vital environment for
all. Food produced organically is thought to be more flavorful, have higher
nutritional values, be safer to eat, and be ecologically sound. Each food
safety crisis, environmental scare, and dietary concern has increased the
steadily growing pool of organic farmers and consumers.
The founders of the organic
agricultural movement—Rodale, Balfour, and Howard, to name a few—passionately shared the belief that the health and vitality
of the soil were key to the future of the land and food production. A
fundamental principle of organic agriculture is that no synthetic fertilizers
or pesticides are permitted. Complex ecosystems that encourage a rich diversity
of plants, animals, and insects are considered necessary for a viable and
living soil. Composting, worms and beneficial insects in the environment,
recycled farm wastes, use of manures, composts, ash, and crop residues
contribute to the vitality of the soil, which in turn leads to healthy plants
and animals. Further, organic agriculture addresses the broader environmental
issues of pesticide and fertilizer residues, run-offs, and concentrations,
which affect, not just the health of the organic farm system, but the
ecosystems around it. The concept of balance between nature and human actions
and stewardship of the land is integral to organic agriculture; in fact, it
cannot be maintained otherwise. The inspection process leading to organic
certification usually requires a minimum of three years in the United States
(two years in the United Kingdom) to allow all traces of past land use
practices to disappear. The first usable harvest follows the third year,
assuming all other criteria are met for organic certification. This sizable
commitment of resources is economically difficult and is one reason that many
countries, although not the United States, have subsidies to help farmers
certify their land for organic production.
Many feel strongly that organic foods,
which are grown without synthetic pesticides, eliminate the concern for
ingesting the residues or additives.
Organic Foods
Most consumers believe, and some
studies have shown, that there are more nutrients and flavor in organic
products. Generally, organic products are more costly than foods grown by
conventional agriculture. They are more labor intensive and must meet much
stricter regulation, and therefore the cost of organic foods reflects the cost
of production. Organic agricultural practices, which utilize local resources
and eliminate outside needs as much as possible, fit developing countries'
needs very well as well as countries with food supply issues, for example,
Cuba.
Cuba is considered one of the success
stories of organic agriculture. Heavily dependent upon the Soviets for food and
agricultural support, the collapse of the former USSR in 1989 left Cuba
desperate for food. Over-night, supplies of synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides and mechanized equipment all disappeared. Urban spaces were turned
into gardens, plot sizes decreased, and organic practices were followed, as
there was no alternative. The results have been dramatic, both in creating a
new career for many and dramatically changing both the diet of the population
and the appearance of Cuba. Now many people have access to fresh organic foods
and unused land is turned to food production. Over one-half million tons of
food were grown in Havana alone in 1998.
Before the 1990 Organic Foods
Production Act, Title XXI of the Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act
of 1990, many state and other organizations certified organic production. The
1990 rules, published in December of 2000 after a decade in development,
review, and revisions, set national standards for certification of agricultural
products as organic. Certification for all but the smallest growers and
compliance for all agricultural products sold under these standards must be
completed by late 2002. Certain practices and types of substances, like
synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, are prohibited. The use of the word
"organic" is now nationally regulated. In the United States, a raw or
processed product labeled "100 percent organic" must contain only
organic ingredients, although it can contain water and salt; if labeled
"organic" it must be at least 95 percent organic and if labeled
"made with organic ingredients" it must have at least 70 percent
organic ingredients. Both the "100 percent organic" and
"organic" designations can use an approved "USDA Organic"
seal and penalties can be levied if there is any deliberate misrepresentation.
Land under Organic Cultivation
In 1997, 1.3 million acres in
forty-nine states were certified organic, and although this number had more
than doubled in the 1990s, certified organic land still represents just 0.2
percent of all cultivated land (828 million acres). These totals include crop,
range, and pasture lands. All indicators are that the amount of certified
organic land is increasing rapidly, however. For example, in California,
certified organic acreage increased by 38 percent between 1995 and 1997 and in
Washington it increased by 150 percent between 1997 and 1999. The highest production
crops that are certified organic are corn and wheat, although thirty-five
states are producing a variety of certified organic grains. Tomatoes, lettuce,
and carrots are the primary organic vegetables, with about 48,227 acres in
organic vegetable production (in 1997); grapes produced on 39 percent of the
acreage and apples on 18 percent of the certified organic farm land account for
about 2 percent of the certified land that is devoted to producing these crops.
Organic herbs are grown in thirty-two states; three states have certified
specific land for harvesting wild herbs.
Prior to this national legislation for
organic certification, organic land certification was given by over 40
organizations, which included twelve state programs. For example, California
grew almost half of all certified organic vegetables in 1997; vegetable farming
in Vermont, which has been promoting organics for 30 years, was 24 percent
organic. Many states have started to develop incentives for organic conversion.
Sales
Most organic farms are about one-third
the size of the conventional farm and average about 140 acres. Organic
vegetables are generally grown on even smaller holdings, with the majority less
than 10 acres in size. They are frequently marketed directly to the consumer
primarily through farmers' markets and restaurant chefs, accounting for 3
percent of total organic sales. A very popular form of direct marketing is
subscription farming, sometimes known as CSA, an innovative way of connecting
the consumer directly with the farm and crop. In 1998, there were 2,746
farmers' markets operating in the United States. Natural food stores, long a
source for all organic products, recorded sales of $4 billion in 1999, and an
annual sales growth rate of at least 20 percent. Total retail sales of all
organic products are estimated at $7.8 billion in 2000, and $833 million of
fresh organic fruits and vegetables were sold in natural food stores in 1999.
Organic Agriculture Worldwide
On a global level, in Europe, Japan,
the United States, and the United Kindom, retail organic food and beverage
sales accounted for about 2 percent of the total, about $13 billion in 1998,
with an anticipated annual growth rate of 20 percent.
In 2001, Canada reported of 246,923
farms, 2,230 produced certified organic products, and 614 of these, or 27.5
percent, produced fruits, vegetables, or greenhouse products. Nearly fifteen
hundred farms, or 64.7 percent, reported organic field crops. In Canada, the
formation of the Land Fellowship in Ontario in the 1950s provided the
foundation of the organic farming movement. As in the United States, these
early visionaries were joined in the 1970s by a host of individuals and
organizations whose concerns for the environmental health of the planet made an
immediate linkage to the principles of organic agriculture. Numerous
organizations, like the Canadian Organic Advisory Board, which is composed of
volunteers, promote and support organic agriculture in a variety of ways
throughout the provinces. Canada's National Standard for Organic Agriculture is
a voluntary standard for organic production, whose principles and practices
focus on protection of environmental biodiversity, a comprehensive and
systematic use of organic practices for the production of foods, and a verification
process to ensure the standards are met.
Sir Albert Howard is not the only
founder of the early organic movement in the United Kingdom to have a global
impact. Lord Walter Northbourne is credited with creating the phrase
"organic farming" in his 1940 book Look to the Land, and Lady Evelyn
Balfour, whose book The Living
Soil was based on years of comparative farming data, inspired
many to support the principles of organic agriculture put forward by Howard.
Lady Balfour was also involved in the founding of the Soil Association in the
United Kingdom in 1946. The Soil Association remains an active advocacy group
for organic standards. Throughout the United Kingdom, there is a wide range of
organizations, government ministries, colleges, and research centers focused on
research, education, advocacy, and sustaining organic agricultural practices.
The first organic standards were published by the Soil Association. The group
performs the majority of the inspections, although several other approved
inspection groups also perform certification inspections.
In the United Kingdom there were 2,865
licensed organic farmers in production, or in conversion, in 2000, a dramatic
increase from the 828 listed in 1997. In late 1999, 2 percent of all
agricultural land (a little over 1 million acres) was farmed organically (fully
organic or in conversion). Organic vegetable production value for 1999 was
$28.8 million in the United Kingdom. Nearly half of the consumers interviewed
said they bought organic produce for the taste.
The Food and Agricultural Organization
of the United Nations (FAO) has published the Codex Alimentarius to establish global food standards and guidelines for organically
produced foods. The FAO states:
Foods should only refer to organic
production methods if they come from an organic farm system employing
management practices which seek to nurture ecosystems which achieve sustainable
productivity and provide weed, pest and disease control though a diverse mix of
mutually dependent life forms, recycling plant and animal residues, crop
selection and rotation, water management, tillage, and cultivation. Soil
fertility is maintained and enhanced by a system which optimizes soil
biological activity and the physical and mineral nature of the soil as the
means to provide a balanced nutrient supply for plant and animal life as well
as to conserve soil resources. Production should be sustainable with the
recycling of plant nutrients as an essential part of the fertilizing strategy.
Pest and disease management is attained by means of the encouragement of a
balanced host/predator relationship, augmentation of beneficial insect
populations, biological and cultural control and mechanical removal of pests
and affected plant parts.
In Europe, the European Union countries
have a total of 10 million acres held in 145,113 organic farms, which represent
about 2 percent of farms and about 3 percent of the farming acreage. This
figure represents a rapid rate of growth, about 25 percent over the last ten
years in European Union member countries. For example, as of 2001, France had
over 10,000 organic farms, an increase of 12 percent from the previous year.
Ongoing research in organic agriculture is being conducted in most countries,
and some have adopted educational programs that support the organic farmers as
well as the consumers. Uniformity of standards and dissemination of research
are critical to the future of organic agriculture. The International Federation
of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) was founded in 1972 to coordinate
research and represent organic agriculture worldwide in forums for policy and
law. Currently, IFOAM is working in 100 countries with more than 690 member
organizations. Perhaps most important, it sets, maintains, and revises the
IFOAM Basic Standards of Organic Agriculture and Food Processing, which are
translated into eighteen languages and ensure the quality of and equal
application of the organic certification through the IFOAM Accreditation
Programme.
Courtesy encyclopedia
