Is Stevia safe for life?

Stevia is perhaps unique among food ingredients because it's most valued for what it doesn't do. It doesn't add calories. Unlike other sugar substitutes, stevia is derived from a plant.Stevia has no calories, and it is 200 times sweeter than sugar in the same concentration. Other studies suggest stevia might have extra health benefits.

"Available research is promising for the use of stevia in hypertension," said Catherine Ulbricht, senior pharmacist at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston and co-founder of Natural Standard Research Collaboration, which reviews evidence on herbs and supplements. Ulbricht said Natural Standard gave stevia a "grade B for efficacy" in lowering blood pressure.

A no-calorie source of sweetness is an obvious diet solution in theory. But a few studies show that replacing sugar with artificial or low-calorie sweeteners may not ultimately lead to weight loss in real life.Yet there is also evidence that stevia does nothing to change eating habits or hurt metabolism in the short term. A 2010 study in the journal Appetite tested several artificial sweeteners against sugar and each other in 19 lean people and 12 obese people.

The study found people did not overeat after consuming a meal made with stevia instead of sugar. Their blood sugar was lower after a meal made with stevia than after eating a meal with sugar, and eating food with stevia resulted in lower insulin levels than eating either sucrose or aspartame.The question of whether stevia is safe to consume largely depends on what someone means by "stevia." The U.S. Food and Drug Administration have not approved stevia leaves or "crude stevia extracts" for use as food additives. Studies on stevia in those forms raise concerns about the control of blood sugar and effects on the reproductive, cardiovascular, and renal systems, the FDA warns.

However, the FDA has allowed companies to use an isolated chemical from stevia as food additive, calling the chemical "generally recognized as safe." Now, products such as Truvia and others have the legal go-ahead to use Rebaudioside A, which is also found in stevia, in their no-calorie sweeteners.But there are some health concerns surrounding the stevia plant. Stevia may cause low blood pressure, which would be of concern to some taking blood pressure medications.

"Caution is advised when using medications that May also lower blood sugar. People taking insulin or drugs for diabetes by mouth should be monitored closely by a qualified health care professional, including a pharmacist," Ulbricht said.

Stevia may also interact with anti-fungal, anti-inflammatories, anti-microbial, anti-cancer drugs, anti-viral, appetite suppressants, calcium channel blockers, cholesterol-lowering drugs, drugs that increase urination, fertility agents and other medications, Ulbricht said. People should talk with their doctor before deciding to take stevia in large amounts, she said.

Conventional Breeding v/s GM plants

Conventional plant breeding involves changing the genes of a plant so that a new and better variety is developed. New varieties of plants are bred to suit different climate conditions, improve taste or nutritional value, cope with disease or pests better, or to use water or nutrients more efficiently for example. To conventionally breed a new plant variety two closely related plants are ‘sexually crossed’. The aim is to combine the favourable traits from both parent plants and exclude their unwanted traits in a singular new and better plant variety.

However, the progeny of this first cross inherit a mix of genes from both parent plants and so both positive and negative traits may be inherited. Breeders have to look at all the progeny and select the ones with the most positive traits and least negative traits.
This process called ‘back-crossing’ takes place over a number of generations, which usually means a number of years, until the progeny have all the desirable traits and none of the negative ones of the original two parent plants.

For example, a wheat variety that produces high yields in a one region may be susceptible to a new disease. Another wheat plant may have very low yield, but has resistance to the new disease. Breeders can cross and backcross these two parent wheat varieties and their progeny with the aim of combining the high yielding qualities from that parent with the disease resistance from the other parent.Conventional plant breeding may also use ‘wider crosses’ that involve crossing species or even genera that are quite unrelated. These crosses cannot occur without help – so sophisticated techniques are employed.

Breeding using genetic modification (GM) also involves changing the genes of a plant so that a new and better variety is developed. It is done for the same reasons as conventional breeding. The key difference is that instead of randomly mixing genes, which occurs as a result of a sexual cross, a specific gene, which is associated with a desirable trait, is selected and inserted directly into the new plant variety.

GM also allows breeders to use genes from unrelated plants and sometimes other organisms into a new variety. This means breeders can access and use a wider choice of genetic diversity to develop new plant varieties. This is possible because all genetic information is stored in DNA – which is the same chemical in all organisms.

For example, conventional breeding uses chemical and physical means to ‘mutate’ plant genes. These gene mutations may give the plant different, and even desirable, traits. Plant breeders can then select for these desirable traits caused by the mutated gene to breed new plant varieties. Mutations also occur naturally and these are also used in breeding.
Conventional breeding also crosses different species of plants to create hybrids. Plant hybrids are common in agriculture and horticulture and home gardeners would be familiar with hybrid flowers and vegetables.

Conventional breeding can also benefit from GM. For example scientists may think a particular gene is responsible for a certain desirable trait. To confirm this they can develop a GM plant using the gene in question. If this GM plant displays the desirable trait then it is likely the gene is responsible.Breeders can then go back to the original plant and start breeding to include the desirable gene using techniques like DNA markers that ‘flag’ the location of the gene making it easy for breeders to know if the gene is present or not in each new generation of plant. This method speeds up the breeding of new plant varieties. 

The unique power of GM however lies in its ability to incorporate novel genes into new plants to develop plants with properties that would not be achievable through conventional breeding. This may mean using genes from unrelated organisms such as in the case of insect-resistant GM cotton.The evolution of plant breeding has been occurring for thousands of years and GM is the latest development. Our ancestors embraced new plant breeding techniques as they emerged and we are the benefactors with a large range of new and improved plant varieties now available to us.GM is one of a suite of breeding tools that future generations can use to help tackle environmental and human health challenges.

Health benefits of rice bran oil

Rice bran oil is the oil extracted from the hard outer brown layer of rice after chaff (rice husk). It is notable for its high smoke point of 232 °C (450 °F) and its mild flavor, making it suitable for high-temperature cooking methods such as stir frying and deep frying. It is popular as a cooking oil in several Asian countries, including Japan, India and China.

Rice bran is the hard outer layer of rice, used for the extraction of oil after dehusking. It is used as cooking oil in many countries like Japan china India.High smoke point and mild flavor of rice bran oil make it more suitable for high temperature cooking method like deep frying.  Rice bran oil has composition just like peanut oil with 38 monounsaturated, 37% polyunsaturated, and 25% saturated fatty acid. Rice bran oil has unique antioxidant    γ-oryzanol. It improves its ability to fight against the disease. Oryzanol content of rice bran oil remain approximately same when heated at 180°C for 8 hours. It has high quantities of phytosterol and polyphenols. These compounds are valuable and responsible for hypocholesterolemic effect.  Rice bran oil has high fraction of tocopherols and trienols together as vitamin E.  These two compound act as anti-mutagenic agent. These prevent the cancer caused by free radical. It is also rich in phytosterol. Studies have shown that rice bran has active constituent to improve the blood cholesterol by reducing the plasma cholesterol and triglyceride and increases the proportion of HDL (high density lipoproteins, also good cholesterol) cholesterol.

When studied in animals, it is noted that 42% decrease in cholesterol with 62% drop in LDL (low density lipoproteins) cholesterol. Rice bran oil also reduces the cardiovascular diseases, also inhibit the platelet aggregation. Studies have shown that woman using the rice bran oil found relief in menopausal symptoms.Fats and oils have dual function, act as heat transfer medium and also become the component of food. So it must have good thermal and oxidative stability, good shelf life, acceptable cost, most important consumer appeal. Rice bran oil does not produce any allergic reaction when ingested.

Rice bran oil not only has a good fatty acid profile but also a rich source of antioxidant and micronutrients. Food prepared from rice bran oil score highest when compare with food prepared from other cooking oil like peanut oil, palm oil and soya bean oil. Rice bran oil considered as more economical as less oil (20%) is absorbed as compare to others. The lower absorption rate is related to viscosity of rice bran oil, which makes it light and non-sticky. High smoke point inhibits the isomerization and polymerization of fatty acid. Squalene a compound present in rice bran  it make the skin fresh, healthy, delay aging, act as moisturizer, prevents the formation of wrinkles,  also give protection from sun damage.

These benefits attract the consumer to utilize the rice bran oil in their diets.

STEVIA “A MIRACLE PLANT”

In Pakistan there are three main sources of sugar, i.e. sugarcane, sugar beet and saccharine (artificial sweetener). These sources tend to increase the glucose level in the body that leads to many lethal diseases like obesity, diabetics etc. among all the sources of sugar, stevia is  best sugar substitute with zero calorie and zero glycemic acid. It is thirty times more sweetener than the sugar. It is miracle plant. Stevia is native to South America. Stevia rebaundiana L. is a shrub like plant that grows up to 1m tall and leaf length varies from 2-3cm.  In Pakistan it is commonly known as methi patti.  While in other countries it is known as sweet leaf, sugar leaf or simply stevia. In Pakistan it is at introductory stage. In Brazil and Paraguay leaves are used as sweetening agent for 100 of years.(Leaves are the basic part of plant that is used for extraction.)

Medically stevia is very important for the remedies of high blood pressure, diabetics, obesity, infections, cavities, hypertension and fatigue.  It is also used to reduce the hypertension heart burn and uric acid level. In many countries it is approved as a food additive and sugar substitute.

Stevia leaves are excellent source of sweetener in cooking in Japan. . One fourth teaspoon of stevia is equal to one teaspoon of sugar. It is utilized in everything from soya sauce to soft drinks, pickles and confectionary products. It is the natural sweetener for centuries. The leaves of stevia have refreshing taste. It contains steviol glycoside which gives sweet taste. In Pakistan first time it is introduced by scientist of NARC (Islamabad). It is grown in 2003to check the climatic conditions / adaptation and also to check the viability of seed. It is easy to cultivate on small scale like in kitchen gardening, in pots and containers in our home.

By keeping in view all the above mentioned uses and benefits we assume that the stevia is better choice for next generation.

Fodder seed industry in Pakistan:

Pakistan is an agricultural county and its economy is based on agriculture sector including livestock. Livestock contributes 49.7% share to agriculture GDP of Pakistan. Sources of feed to animals are cultivated lands, feed from uncultivated lands, crop residues and concentrations. In Pakistan major fodder crops during winter are berseem, alfalfa, oat, barley and mustard and summer fodder crops are maize, sorghum and millets. These crops use 16-17% of area of the country. The area is decreased day by day but production yield is increases due to R&D efforts by the National Research System (NRS).

The area under fodder crop is increased wither low fluctuations from 2603 thousand hectares in 1976-77 to 2644 thousand hectares in 1993-1994. Punjab province uses an area of 2150.6 thousand ha with production of 44626.5 thousand tons. Sindh province uses an area of 323.8 thousand ha with production of 8317.3 thousand tons. Many research institutes are working on fodder crops in Pakistan. Ayub Agriculture Research Institute (AARI) and National Agriculture Research Center (NARC) are main research station of fodder seeds production. Fodder research institute Sargodha is also a well-established setup for hybrid seed production of sorghum, berseem and millets.

Before partition of Indo-Pak a single research station on fodder crops was present in Sirsa, India. When Pakistan came into being, a research station was initiated at the former Punjab Agriculture College and Research institute (PACRI) Lyallpur (Faisalabad), where a fodder research institute was established under botany department. This unit worked a lot and then it was progressed when PACRI was raised on the status of University of Agriculture Faisalabad. The fodder research station was shifted to AARI. AARI has sub-station in Sargodha where work is done on hybrid seed production. In 1981, Sargodha research institute on fodder crops was raised a full-fledged research institute by Director General of AARI.

In Pakistan main fodder crops are clovers, sorghum, millet, shaftal, maize, guara, peas and oats. The forage yield of these crops is low due to no availability of good quality seed. Hybrid seeds are not available in Pakistan at a large scale. This low yield can be increased by using good quality seeds and hybrids in sorghum and corn maize.National growth is based on food availability and poverty alleviation which are condemned from livestock promotion. Livestock sector is promoted by fodder and green forage.

On fodder improvement no work is done exceptPunjab where there is needed to strengthened to this department.There is continuous sifting of staff from fodder to other disciplines. There is lack of trained research staff within country and abroad. There is lack of pest control programme in fodder e.g control of Egyptian weevil and army worm complexes in alfalfa and Berseem.In Baluchistan, NWFP, cholistan there is need to accelerate and renovation of rangeland. Some rangeland is overgrazed to extent that even hundred acres can hardly sustain a sheep.

Complete description about introduction, evaluation and documentation of fodder germplasm for rain-fed and irrigated areas.Breeding is done for dual purpose of grains and green forage yielding varieties, high protein quality contents, drought and salt tolerance, lodging resistance and high yield production. Work on the production of synthetic cultivars in lucerne and berseem for high vegetative growth is done. Government should promote breeding in fodder crops on international level by making linkage with international companies related with fodder crops seed production. Government should give alliance to labs, research stations for better development of good quality seeds of fodder crops.

In Pakistan there is no proper system for distribution of seed. No quarantine laws are followed by agencies. Pakistan is a developing country, so there is no proper system for seed multiplication. Hybrid seeds of fodder crops are imported from India, China and USA. Pakistani seed companies produced low quality seed. Fodder research institute Sargodha and ARRI are two main research stations for fodder seed development. NARC is doing best for fodder seed production. There is need to produced seeds of sorghum, berseem, millet, and sudangrass in Pakistan. Government should provide maximum facilities to research stations for the production of fodder seeds in Pakistan.

Induction of polyploidy to increase vegetative growth in Berseem

Livestock has major role in farming system and agriculture economy of many countries. Forages and fodders are main feeding components of livestock animals. Thus, they play a major role in the production of meat, milk and wool. Berseem or Egyptian clover (Triffolium alexandrin ‘m L) is very important winter legume grown for green fodder in many countries. It is originated from Egypt so it is so called Egyptian clover. For the first in Indo-Pak, it was introduced in Sindh in 1904. Then it was grown in Peshawar and other irrigated areas of Punjab. Berseem is cross-pollinated crop. Berseem has trifoliate leaves with hair present on them.

Polyploids organisms have more than two basic sets (x) of homologous chromosomes and the phenomenon is called polyploidy. Berseem has chromosome number 2n=2x=16. Polyploidy method is used to increases the vegetative growth of clover because our main output is large sized leaves for fodder purposes. Induction of polyploidy is natural or artificial. In case of berseem, autotetraploid (2n=4x=32) and autohexaploid (2n=6x=64) are present which increase the vegetative growth. Morphological and physiological changes occur in berseem genotypes. Polyploid berseem plants have larger inflorescence size and number per plants with larger size leaves.

Artificial polyploidy may has positive or negative affects but induced polyploidy method is used via different treatments of colchicine, X-rays, gamma rays and other different mutated material. Induced polyploidy is done under control conditions.Basic chromosome number of berseem is x=7 and x=8. Change in ploidy level of berseem has various chromosomal evolution mechanisms in which translocation, inversions, duplications and deletions are prominent. Pairing of chromosomes leads to interspecific hybrids between x=7 and x=8 with increase in vegetative growth. Trifolium pratense and Trifolium diffusum supports the mechanism of increase in vegetative growth.

Polyploidy has also been a major factor in species evolution in Trifolium. Studies of interspecific hybrids between the polyploid Egyptian clover and related diploid species show that several diploid annual and perennial species have chromosome relationships to Egyptian clover. Polyploid hybrids of berseem between (2n=58-60) are fertile with high vegetative growth.

Artificial induction of polyploidy is done by different mutagenic agents like colchicine, radiations and chemical agents. But the most effective treatment is colchicine application. Colchicine is applied on seedling, booting, floral parts etc. Different genotypes of berseem like, Helaly, Serw-1, Shaka-4, Gemmiza-1 and Fahl are treated with colchicine and get maximum positive results in India.Berseem has x=8 chromosomes which is best for polyploidy induction. Polyploidy induction in berseem is found useful to obtain new genotypes having higher vegetative growth as compared to diploids. Polyploid have bigger organ size than their parents. Several methods have been used for producing autopolyploids in legume forages.

Colchicine is extracted from the plant (Colchicum autumnale  L.) which  is  one  of  the  most  widely  used chemicals  for  polyploidy  induction in many crops. It blocks the spindle fibers formation and stops the mitosis at anaphase stage. So at this stage cell division does not take place and multiplication of chromosome occur and hence polyploid cells are formed. Polyploid cells are larger in size and thus they increase the volume of plants organs. For colchicine treatment 100 seeds of berseem clover are used.

 There are two different methods of colchicine treatment. (a)Seeds of berseem are soaked in colchicine solution (0.05%) for 2.5 hours. Before sowing these seeds are washed with distilled water. (b)In this method colchicine is applied in three different concentrations (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3%). In old seedling, apical meristems are used for colchicine treatments every 3 hours in the same day. Colchicine treatments are applied on every genotype of berseem clover and then pots are kept under greenhouse conditions. Numbers of surviving plants after full germination are counted. First cut is carried out after 60 days of sowing. Polyploidy induction in berseem is highly effective and gets maximum positive results. After plantation, a large difference is detected between different genotypes of berseem in field.

After treatment the first cut is made and all plants which are morphologically affected has thickened leaves and stunted growth habit which is potted up and retained. Polyploid plants had a larger inflorescence size.Colchicine treatment increases the number of tillers per plant, branches, sub-branches and number of inflorescence which leads to increase in forage yield. After colchicine application, various changes occur in leaflet size, shape and number.There is a huge difference between diploid and tetraploid species during cutting. In first two cuttings tetraploid were superior over diploid but in third cutting tetraploid came down and diploid were superior over tetraploid. The average green fodder yield of berseem is 4-6 cuttings varies from 100-125 tons/ha. After colchicine treatment this yield increases upto 150-170 tons/ha in the same period of cuttings.

Induction of polyploidy increases the vegetative growth like increases the leaf surface area, tillering, seed per plants, plant height etc. Polyploidy is induced by different methods. Colchicine is treated with seedlings and get benefits results to increase the surface area. Ploidy level of Egyptian clover is increases upto certain level to get maximum positive results colchicine treatment is done by different methods and get different results. Ourmain focus is to increase it vegetative growth not reproductive growth because vegetative growth increases the tonnage of green fodder. 

Possible jeopardiesrelated with using transgenic crops in agriculture

Muhammad Mahran Aslam

Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics

Some consumers and environmentalists feel that inad­equate effort has been made to understand the dangers in the use of transgenic crops, including their potential long-term impacts. Some consumer-advocate and envi­ronmental groups have demanded the abandonment of genetic engineering research and development. Many individuals, when confronted with conflicting and con­fusing statements about the effect of genetic engineer­ing on our environment and food supply, experience a “dread fear” that inspires great anxiety. This fear can be aroused by only a minimal amount of information or, in some cases, misinformation. With people thus concerned for their health and the well-being of our planetary ecol­ogy, the issues related to their concerns need to be ad­dressed. These issues and fears can be divided into three groups: health, environmental, and social.

Health-related issues

Allergens and toxins

People with food allergies have an unusual immune re­action when they are exposed to specific proteins, called allergens, in food. About 2 percent of people across all age groups have a food allergy of some sort. The majority of foods do not cause any allergy in the majority of people. Food-allergic people usually react only to one or a few allergens in one or two specific foods. A major safety concern raised with regard to genetic engineering technology is the risk of introducing allergens and toxins into otherwise safe foods. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) checks to ensure that the levels of naturally occurring allergens in foods made from transgenic organisms have not significantly increased above the natural range found in conventional foods. Transgenic technology is also being used to remove the allergens from peanuts, one of most serious causes of food allergy.

Antibiotic resistance

Antibiotic resistance genes are used to identify and trace a trait of interest that has been introduced into plant cells. This technique ensures that a gene transfer during the course of genetic modification was successful. Use of these markers has raised concerns that new antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria will emerge. The rise of diseases that are resistant to treatment with common anti­biotics is a serious medical concern of some opponents of genetic engineering technology. The potential risk of transfer from plants to bacteria is substantially less than the risk of normal transfer between bacteria, or between us and the bacteria that naturally occur within our alimentary tracts. Nevertheless, to be on the safe side, FDA has advised food developers to avoid using marker genes that encode resistance to clinically important antibiotics

Environmental and ecological issues

Potential gene escape and super weeds

There is a belief among some opponents of genetic en­gineering technology that transgenic crops might cross-pollinate with related weeds, possibly resulting in “super weeds” that become more difficult to control. One concern is that pollen transfer from glyphosate-resistant crops to related weeds can confer resistance to glyphosate. While the chance of this happening, although extremely small, is not inconceivable, resistance to a specific herbicide does not mean that the plant is resistant to other herbicides, so affected weeds could still be controlled with other products.

Some people are worried that genetic engineering could conceivably improve a plant’s ability to “escape” into the wild and produce ecological imbalances or disasters. Most crop plants have significant limitations in their growth and seed dispersal habits that prevent them from surviving long without constant nurture by humans, and they are thus unlikely to thrive in the wild as weeds. Impacts on “nontarget” species some environmentalists maintain that once transgenic crops have been released into the environment, they could have unforeseen and undesirable effects. Although transgenic crops are rigorously tested before being made commercially available, not every potential impact can be foreseen. Bt-corn, for instance, produces a very specific pesticide intended to kill only pests that feed on the corn. In 1999, however, researchers at Cornell Uni­versity found that pollen from Bt-corn could kill caterpillars of the harmless Monarch butterfly. When they fed Monarch caterpillar’s milkweed dusted with Bt-corn pollen in the laboratory, half of the larvae died. But follow-up field studies showed that under real-life condi­tions Monarch butterfly caterpillars are highly unlikely to come into contact with pollen from Bt corn that has drifted onto milkweed leaves—or to eat enough of it to harm them.

Insecticide resistance

Another concern related to the potential impact of agri­cultural biotechnology on the environment involves the question of whether insect pests could develop resistance to crop-protection features of transgenic crops. There is fear that large-scale adoption of Bt-crops will result in rapid build-up of resistance in pest populations. Insects possess a remarkable capacity to adapt to selective pressures, but to date, despite widespread planting of Bt-crops, no Bt-tolerance in targeted insect pests has been detected.

Social issues

Labeling

Some consumer groups argue that foods derived from genetically engineered crops should carry a special la­bel. In the USA, these foods currently must be labeled only if they are nutritionally different from a conven­tional food.

“Terminator” technology

Most farmers in the USA and elsewhere buy fresh seeds each season, particularly of such crops as corn, green peppers, and tomatoes. Anyone growing hybrid varieties must buy new seeds annually, because seeds from last year’s hybrids grown on the farm will not produce plants identical to the parent. For this same reason—to avoid random genetic diversity due to open pollination—farm­ers do not plant mango, avocado, or macadamia from seed; instead, they clone individual plants of known quality through techniques such as grafting. In developing countries, many farmers who are not growing hybrids save harvested seeds for replanting the next year’s crop. A technology has been developed that might be used to prevent purchasers of transgenic crop seeds from saving and replanting them. Such “terminator” seeds are genetically engineered, along with other improvements more acceptable to farmers, to produce plants with seeds that have poor germination. This forces farmers who otherwise save seed to purchase it if they wish to use these improved commercial varieties. And, in the USA, the crops engineered with various charac­ters are sold alongside nontransgenic alternatives for which growers also typically purchase seeds annually.

Despite these mitigating circumstances, this is seri­ous issue among organic growers and in developing countries, where the practice of saving seeds is the norm for farmers who are not growing hybrid crops. Inclu­sion of “terminator” genes means that these farmers can­not take advantage of improvements brought about by genetic engineering without being brought into the economic cycle that profits the seed companies. Without profit incentive, however, these companies are unlikely to invest in improving crops. This issue is analogous to that faced by pharmaceutical companies developing new medications against human diseases. Clearly, it is a difficult and divisive social issue.

Safety and regulations

Transgenic crops and their resulting foods in the United States are extensively researched and reviewed by three federal government agencies: the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the U.S. Environmental Protec­tion Agency (EPA), and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Each agency is responsible for a different part of the review process. USDA has primary responsibility for determining if a new product is safe to grow, while EPA reviews the product for potential impact on the environment. FDA is concerned with protecting the consumer and has final authority to declare if a product is safe to eat.

Considerations about food from genetically engineered crops have raised a host of questions about effects on the environment, economic impacts, and eth­5 BIO- 3  Use of Biotechnology in Agriculture—Benefits and Risks  CTAHR — May 2003 ics. However, perhaps the most fundamental question about such food is whether it is safe and wholesome to eat. Before field testing any new transgenic crop, companies and research institutions must register with USDA for field testing permission. Researchers must ensure that pollen and plant parts of the tested plants are not released into the environment during this period.

Transgenic crops must also pass scrutiny of the EPA, which has the authority to regulate all new pesticides and genetically engineered crops. EPA is concerned with potential impacts on nontarget species and endangered or threatened species. Finally, any foods derived from transgenic crops must pass FDA inspection. Current law requires that foods from transgenic organisms must be labeled as such if their nutritional content or composition differs significantly from their conventional counterparts or if they pose any health risks. Both the National Academy of Sciences and the FDA have determined that, in general, foods derived so far from genetically engineered organisms are as safe as or safer than con­ventional counterparts. The main concern is remaining vigilant for potential allergens.

 For publishing your article please do contact us at:

+92-303-4309053

uafinformation@yahoo.com

*We also publish best articles of month in our bimonthly E-Newsletter